In 793 the monks on the island of Lindisfarne, off the northeast coast of England, are unpleasantly surprised by the arrival of violent raiders from the sea. Their misfortune is the first clearly dated event in the saga of the Vikings - the last and most dramatic exodus in the long story of migration from Scandinavia, the original home of the Goths and Vandals.
The name Viking is thought to derive fromvikingr, a word for 'pirate' in the early Scandinavian languages. It accurately describes the Norsemen who for two centuries raid the coasts of Britain and of northwest France. But in many places the Scandinavians also settle - in the islands of thenorth Atlantic, in the British Isles, in Normandy, in Sicily and in the very heart of Russia.
It is impossible to assign the various Viking groups at all precisely to places of origin. But broadly speaking, adventurers from the coast of Norway raid the north of England and continue round the Scottish coast to Ireland. Vikings from the same region later settle in the Scottish islands, Iceland and parts of Ireland.
The Vikings invading easternBritain and northwestFrance, and eventually settling in both regions, come mainly from Denmark. The Swedes raid across the Baltic and penetrate deep into Russia as traders.
The Vikings and the British Isles: 9th - 10th century
The coasts of the British isles are now dotted with monasteries, not yet rich by the standards of medieval monasticism but with sufficient wealth to attract Viking marauders. One of the most famous islands, Iona, is raided three times in a decade (in 795, 802 and 805). Even monasteries which seem secure, pleasantly sited on inland rivers, fall victim to Viking longships rowing upstream. But gradually, during the 9th century, the raiders settle.
Soon all the Scottish islands and the Isle of Man are in Viking hands, and the intruders are even seizing territory on the mainland of both Britain and Ireland. In 838 Norwegians capture Dublin and establish a Norse kingdom in Ireland. From 865 the Danes settle in eastern England.
Danes in England: from865
Thirty years of Danish raids on the east coast of England precede the arrival, in 865, of a 'Great Army' equipped for conquest rather than quick booty. The Danish invaders now consolidate each year's gains by establishing a secure base from which they can continue a campaign of harassment - which invariably ends with the settled English buying peace from their footloose tormentors.
York is taken in 866 (and becomes, as Yorvik, the Danish capital in England). Nottingham falls in 867, Thetford in 869. By now the kings of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia have made terms with the invaders. Next in line is Wessex.
In 870 the Danes advance into Wessex, capturing Reading where they meet the most determined opposition thus far. During the next year nine battles are fought in this district. In 871, at Ashdown on the Berkshire downs, the English win their first significant victory of the war; a Danish king and nine earls are killed on the field of battle. Even so, it proves impossible to recapture Reading. Wessex, like the other English kingdoms, makes peace with the Danes - who withdraw to winter in London.
But the victory at Ashdown has introduced a figure of significance in English history. The Wessex men are commanded that day by a 23-year-old prince of their ruling family - Alfred, brother of the king of Wessex.
Alfred and the Danes: 871-899
In popular tradition the story of England, as opposed to Britain, begins with Alfred. And there is a valid basis for this heroic status. He is the first Anglo-Saxon ruler to be accepted as something akin to a national leader. The English see him as such in those regions resisting Danish domination. With good cause he is the only king of England to be accorded the title 'the Great'.
His authority derives from his successes against the Danes. His kingly virtues can also be seen, with hindsight, in his encouragement of learning. But his central achievement is the quarter-century of struggle which follows his victory over the Danes atAshdown in 871.
In that same year, 871, Alfred's elder brother dies and he becomes the king of Wessex. One of his first acts is to establish the beginnings of an English fleet. The Danes draw much of their strength from their swift Vikinglongships. It makes sense for the Anglo-Saxon islanders to reply in kind. By 875 Alfred can claim a small naval victory which is nevertheless a significant beginning. Going to sea with his new fleet, he holds his own against seven Danish ships and even captures one of them.
On land he has similar successes, defeating Danish armies and forcing them to agree to leave Wessex in peace. But the Danes regularly break their word.
In 878 a surprise Danish attack pushes Alfred west into the Somerset marshes. From a single fort at Athelney he organizes local resistance. This is the lowest ebb of the English cause, the nearest that the Danes come to conquering Wessex and establishing their rule over the whole of England.
Within a few months Alfred is strong enough to move east again and defeat the Danes at Edington in Wiltshire. The conclusion of this campaign is a two-week siege of Guthrum, the Danish king of East Anglia, who is encircled in his encampment. Guthrum secures his freedom by promising (once again) to leave Wessex. More significantly, he also agrees to be baptized a Christian.
The ceremony of baptism takes place on the river Parrett, with Alfred in the role of sponsor of the new convert. Then the two Christian kings go together to Wedmore (the year is still 878), where they spend twelve days in ceremony and feasting and in the agreement of a treaty which finally preserves Wessex from Danish intrusion.
A Danish invasion of Kent in 885 gives Alfred the pretext for expansion eastwards. He drives back the invaders, and in 886 occupies London. This success leads to a new treaty with Guthrum. He and Alfred agree a basis for coexistence between Anglo-Saxons in the south and west and Danes in the north and east of the country - the region which becomes known as Danelaw.
Norwegians in Ireland: 9th - 11th century
During the 9th century the Norse kings of Dublin are in constant warfare with Irish kings. They suffer several reverses. But in the early 10th century the trend seems to be going in favour of the Vikings. They capture important strongholds at the mouths of Ireland's main rivers. Waterford falls to them in 914, Limerick in 920. Cork is at various times occupied by Vikings, and Wexford is founded as a Norse settlement.
The Irish persistently fight back - most notably under the leadership of Brian Boru.
Even after their conversion to Christianity the Norse were accused of being Pagans. The Christians described the Norse as violent and obscene, but their religion was just a way of life. The well-known descriptions of the Norse by Anglo-Saxon chroniclers has given a biased view of the religious beliefs of the Norsemen. However, through poems, stories and archaeological findings, the beliefs and rituals of the Norse show that they are not such obscene and bloodthirsty people as popular history suggests.
Evidence of Norse worship can be found in written sagas, poems and in archaeological findings. There are a few sagas that chronicle the lives and habits of the Norse, such as The Younger Edda of Snorri Sturluson[1] , a 10th Century Icelandic poet and historian. Although these sagas are not primary sources, they give details of the Norse culture that would otherwise be unknown. Through these sagas, the reader learns of the stories of the Norse view on the creation of the world, humans and gods. Sturluson writes, in the Younger Eddas, that;
One day... as the sons of Bor were walking along the sea-beach they found two stems of wood, out of which they shaped a man and a woman. The first god (Odin) infused into them life and spirit; the second (Vili) endowed them with reason and the power of motion; the third (Ve) gave them speech and features, hearing and vision. The man they called Ask, and the woman, Embla. From these two descend the whole human race whose assigned dwelling was within Midgard.[2]
These sagas also tell of particular rituals that supposedly took place, although many scholars have dismissed them as “medieval fantasies.” However, Sturluson is known to have possessed a large knowledge of the pre-Christian past.
Artwork by Jacques Reich (1852 - 1923) showing the Norse god Freyr and his boar Gullinbursti.Archaeological research has also found evidence of Norse worship in the forms of tomb stones; small, gold sheets and bog bodies. Stones have been found in church yards that have scenes from Norse myths engraved on them. On many of these stones there are traces of blue, which would indicate that these stones may have been coloured. According to Ronald Jessup, author of Age by Age: Landmarks of British Archaeology, these relics are believed to be part of stone coffins.[3] Small gold foil sheets have also been found. These sheets are no bigger than 1 centimetre square, and many show an image of a man and woman embracing. The sheets are too light to have been used as money. William R. Short states that these sheets were deposited when a king or chieftain celebrated his wedding.[4] The sheets were often found under posts that support structures, or under high-seats. Short continues to say that the figures on these gold sheets represent Freyr and his wife, the Giantess Gerð. In Norse religion this marriage is considered very important as it brought the Gods and the Giants together.
The Norse believed that the gods were split into two different groups; the Æasir and the Vanir. The Vanir, according to Amanda O’Neill[5] , are the oldest of the gods. The gods who are classified as Vanir are Freyr (meaning “lord), the god of fertility; his sister Freyja (meaning “Lady” respectively), the goddess of fertility, love, war and beauty (and, according to Sturluson, considered to be the leader of the Valkyries) and Njord, the god of the sea, who is said to be Freyr and Freyja’s father.[6] The Vanir appear to be connected mainly with cultivation and fertility. The Æasir, however, were associated with war and power. The gods of the Æasir are: Odin, the god of wisdom and war; Vili and Vé, brothers of Odin; Thor, the god of thunder and battle; Loki, the mischievous trickster and supposed foster-brother of Odin; Tyr, the one-handed self sacrificing god of justice and law; Heimdall, the watcher and guardian of the gods; Baldur, god of radiance and rebirth and one of Odin’s sons; Hod, the blind god of darkness and Odin’s son; Hœnir, the indecisive god, Meili, the god of travel and also son of Odin; Forseti, the god of peace and truth and the son of Baldur; Vidar, the god of stealth and vengeance and another son of Odin; Vali, the avenger and son of Odin; Ullr, god of hunting (who was, according to the 12th century Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus, slain by the Norse after he filled in Odin’s job while Odin was exiled)[7] ; Bragi, god of poetry; Idon, goddess of youth; Skaði, a giantess who was goddess of snow and winter and also second wife of Njord, and Hermod, messenger of Odin.
The Æasir and Vanir are said to have had a war in which Freyja, Freyr and Njord were taken as hostages, and became part of the Æasir.
Sculpture of Freyja in Stockholm, Sweden. Sculpture by Rolf Adlersparre, 1880s.The gods of the Norse appear to have been worshipped differently. Some were content with simple food offerings, whilst others required human sacrifice in order for them to bless their followers. Offerings were made to the god Freyr at weddings, so that he would bless the couple with joy and fertility. At these weddings, animal sacrifices were often made to Freyr. In this ritual a boar would be killed and its blood poured into a bowl which was placed upon a högr- a type of altar. Fir twigs would then be dipped in the bowl and then waved in the form of a hammer. The participants of this sacrifice would be spattered with the blood, and thus these participants would be consecrated.
Although human sacrifice was most often linked to Odin, Freyr has also been worshipped through such human sacrificial acts. According to Grammaticus’ (Gesta Danorum),
[I]n order to mollify the divinities he did indeed make a holy sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to the god Frø [Freyr]. He repeated this mode of propitiation at an annual festival and left it to be imitated by his descendants. The Swedes call it Frøblot.
‘Blot’ is widely translated to mean “strengthening”, but most scholars have translated it to mean “sacrifice”. As sacrifices were used to make the gods stronger, and thus act favourably to men, both translations are suitable. An example of one type of blot was detailed by Sturluson in his Heimskringla saga. He wrote that a sacrificial feast occurred in a place called Troøndelay. At this feast, sacrificial animals, particularly horses and pigs, were killed and cooked in a deep pit. The blood of these animals was sprinkled on the walls and on the images of the gods and the participants of the rite. The blood was thought to contain special powers. The food and drink would be blessed by a chieftain, and then participants would drink first to Odin for victory and power to the king, then to Njord for luck on the sea, and finally to Freyr for fertility and peace. They would later drink to their ancestors.
In the Hrafnkels saga (author unknown), the story goes that the protagonist of the saga dedicates a horse to Freyr, and kills a man for riding it. The goddess Freyja is the most honoured goddess, and in the Droplaugarsona saga (author unknown), it is said that in a temple the statue of Freyja is seated upon a higher throne than the statues of Thor and Freyr, and her statue was covered in drapery and gold and silver ornaments. Sturluson writes in the Heimskringla saga that
Njörðr's daughter Freyja was priestess of the sacrifices, and first taught the Æsir the magic art, as it was in use and fashion among the Vanir.
This implies that sacrifices were indeed made to Freyja, in this case animal sacrifice, a sow, much like the sacrifices made to Freyr.
The god Thor also receives sacrifices in the same vein as those Freyr and Freyja received, only Thor’s sacrificial animal was a goat. The Norse offered him sacrifices when they were threatened by hunger or disease. However, unlike many of the other gods, Thor did not require human sacrifice. Hammer shaped amulets were a symbol of Thor as it represented his hammer, Mjollnir, and many Norse wore these amulets as a sign of respect and worship for the god.
It is written in many sources that Odin was the god that received the most sacrifices; particularly sacrifices of the human kind. As he brought victory to the Norse in battle, sacrifices were held often. Adam of Brenen, a German medieval chronicler, describes one such sacrificial act.
It is the custom moreover every nine years for a common festival of all the provinces of Sweden to be held at Uppsala. Kings and commoners one and all send their gifts to Uppsala, and what is more cruel than any punishment, even those who have accepted Christianity have to buy immunity from these ceremonies. The sacrifice is as follows: of every living creature they offer nine head, and with the blood of those it is the custom to placate the gods, but the bodies are hanged in a grove which is near the temple; so holy is that grove to the heathens that each tree in it is presumed to be divine by reason of the victim's death and putrefaction. There also are dogs and horses hang along with men. One of the Christians told me that he had seen seventy-two bodies of various kinds hanging there, but the incantations which are usually sung at this kind of sacrifice are various and disgraceful, and so we had better say nothing about them.
Apparently, everyone was obliged to take part in these celebrations, but Christians had to pay to be exempted. The sacrifice was made at the start of summer, in return for victory for the coming season.
Another form of worship to Odin was the “blood eagle”. According to Michael Wood,[8] , in 867, when the Norse attacked the kingdom of Northumbria, they captured the Northumbrian king Aelle and performed the blood eagle rite. This involved cutting the ribs and lungs from the still living man and spreading them beside his body in the shape of eagle’s wings. In 869, Edmund, king of the East Angles, suffered the blood eagle too. The Norse had planned to use this method of sacrifice on King Alfred, had they managed to defeat him.[9]
The Norse are commonly portrayed as stupid, bloodthirsty villains. However, their “thirst for blood” was part of their religious practice. Through reading stories and poems, and from archaeological discoveries, a better understanding of their culture and behaviour can be gained.
Ragnarok is the doom of the gods and the humans. It will be the final battle between the Aesir and Jotuns. The battle will take place on the plains called Vigrid.
Surt the fire giant, setting the world on fire. (Surt from Doom of the Gods by Tudor Humphries)
During Ragnarok the walls of Asgard, the homes of the Aesir, and the huge bridge Bifrost, will be set on fire by Surt the fire giant. The mighty Midgard serpent will be emerging from the turbulent sea and engulf the Vigrid plains, while it splashes its tail and sprays poison in all directions, causing huge waves crashing towards the land. The Fenrir wolf will break free of his chains and spread death and destruction. The sun and the moon will be swallowed by the wolfs Sköll and Hati. Even the world tree Yggdrasil, will shake the ground.
Odin will be killed by the Fenrir wolf and Thor and the Midgard Serpent will kill each other. Loki will turn on the Aesir, and fight Heimdall, and they will kill each other. Tyr and the watchdog “Garm” from Hel, will also kill each other. Freyr will be killed by the fire giant named Surt. Finally Surt will set all the nine worlds, in a flaming inferno and they will sink into the boiling sea. There is nothing the gods can do to prevent Ragnarok. Odins only comfort is that, he can predict that Ragnarok, will not be the end of the world.
The signs of RagnarokThere will be some signs if Ragnarok "the end of the world" is coming. The murder of the god Balder, the son of Odin and Frigg.
We will have a long and cold winter that, will last for three years with no summer in between. The name of these uninterrupted winters are called "Fimbulwinter" During these three years, the world will be plagued by wars, and brothers will kill brothers.
A beautiful red rooster "Fjalar" which name means the "All knowner", will warn all the giants that the beginning of Ragnarok has begun. At the same time in Niflheim, will a red rooster warn all the dead, that the war was started. And also in Asgard, will a red rooster “Gullinkambi” warn all the gods.
Heimdall will blow his horn as loud as he can and that will be the warning for all the einherjar in Valhalla that the war has started.
This will be the battle to end all battles, and this will be the day that all the Vikings “Einherjar” from Valhalla who had died honourable in battle, to pick up their swords and armor to fight side by the side with the Aesir against the Jotuns.
The gods, Balder and Hod will be returned from the dead, to fight one last time with their brothers and sisters.
Odin will with his eagle helmet equipped and his spear Gungnir in his hand, while riding on his horse sleipnir, lead the enormous army of Asgard with all the gods and brave einherjar to the battleground at Vigrid.
The Jotuns will together with Hel, and all her dishonorable dead, sail in the ship Naglfar, which is made from the fingernails of all the dead, sail to the plains of Vigrid.
The dragon Nidhug will come flying over the battlefield, and gather as many corpses for his never ending hunger.
A new begining after Ragnarok.
When most of the gods had perished in the mutually destruction with the Jotuns, it is predetermined that a new world will rise up from the water, beautiful and green. Before the battle at Ragnarok, two people, Lif “a woman” and Liftraser “a man”, will find sheltering in the sacred tree Yggdrasil. And when the battle is over, they will come out and populate the earth again. Several of the gods will survive, among them Odin's sons Vidar and Vali and his brother Honir. Thor's sons Modi and Magni they will inherit their father's hammer Mjölnir.
The few gods who survive will go to Idavoll, which has remained untouched. And here they will build new houses, the greatest of the houses will beGimli, and will have a roof of gold. There is also a new place called Brimir, on the place called Okolnir “Never cold”. It is in the mountains of Nidafjoll. But there is also a terrible place, a great hall on Nastrond, the shore of corpses. All its doors faces north to greet the screaming winds. The walls will be made of writhing snakes that pour their venom into a river that flowes through the hall. This will be the new underground, full of thieves and murderers, and when they dies the great dragon Nidhug, is there to feed upon their corpses.